
Enhanced sexual dimorphism in great ape craniofacial dimensions is associated with intergroup aggression and mate competition, and with high testosterone levels. Testosterone influences suprapharyngeal vocal tract (SVT) length and vocal pitch. Differences in epigenetic regulation of genes that affect vocal tract and facial anatomy between neanderthal and modern human ancient DNA suggests down-regulation of SVT genes can account for facial reduction in modern humans. Epigenetics supports the hypothesis that sexual selection on vocal pitch may explain many differences between neanderthal and modern human cranio-facial morphology.